In vitro and in vivo functional analyses of these components, separately and in combination, should help to complete the picture. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The authors thank four anonymous reviewers for critical comments that have helped to improve the manuscript. Adams, G. Wintertime Photostress in Red Spruce Foliage. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont. Google Scholar. Anderson, J. Hortscience 23, — Angelcheva, L. Metabolomic analysis of extreme freezing tolerance in Siberian spruce Picea obovata. New Phytol. Arora, R. Protoplasmic swelling as a symptom of freezing injury in onion bulb cells. Plant Physiol. Physiological research on winter-hardiness: deacclimation resistance, reacclimation ability, photoprotection strategies, and a cold acclimation protocol design.
Hortscience 46, — Artlip, T. CBF gene expression in peach leaf and bark tissues is gated by a circadian clock. Tree Physiol. Ashworth, E. Seasonal variations in soluble sugars and starch within woody stems of Cornus sericea L. Bannister, P. Bigras and S. Colombo Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers , 3— Baronius, G.
Comparative investigations by means of Munsell-color charts and the Cielab color system on the winter chlorosis of Pinus sylvestris L. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt , — CrossRef Full Text. Beck, E. Plant resistance to cold stress: mechanisms and environmental signals triggering frost hardening and dehardening.
Benedict, C. The CBF1-dependent low temperature signalling pathway, regulon and increase in freeze tolerance are conserved in Populus spp. Plant Cell Environ. Bigras, F. Colombo Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic , 57— Buitink, J.
Glass formation in plant anhydrobiotes: survival in the dry state. Cryobiology 48, — Burr, K. Comparison of three cold hardiness tests for conifer seedlings. Relationships among cold hardiness, root-growth potential and bud dormancy in 3 conifers. Chabot, J. Developmental and seasonal patterns of mesophyll ultrastructure in abies balsamea.
Christersson, L. The influence of photperiod and temperature on the development of frost hardiness in seedlings of Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies. Close, T. Dehydrins: emergence of a biochemical role of a family of plant dehydration proteins. Cox, S. Temperature-related shifts in soluble carbohydrate content during dormancy and cold acclimation in Populus tremuloides.
Crowe, J. The role of vitrification in anhydrobiosis. Preservation of Membranes in anhydrobiotic organisms - the role of trehalose. Science , — Crowe, L. Is trehalose special for preserving dry biomaterials?
Dexter, S. Investigations of the hardiness of plants by measurement of electrical conductivity. Deyoe, D. Glycerolipid and fatty acid changes in eastern white pine chloroplast lamellae during the onset of winter. Eriksson, S. Tunable membrane binding of the intrinsically disordered dehydrin lti30, a cold-induced plant stress protein.
Plant Cell 23, — Goff, H. Glass transitions in frozen sucrose solutions are influenced by solute inclusions within ice crystals. Acta , 43— Gusta, L. Oxfordshire: Centre for Biosciences and Agriculture International. Guy, C. Survival of cornus-sericea L stem cortical-cells following immersion in liquid-helium. Hinesley, L. Foliar raffinose and sucrose in four conifer species: relationship to seasonal temperature. Hirsh, A. Vitrification in plants as a natural form of cryoprotection.
Cryobiology 24, — Ismail, A. Purification and partial characterization of a dehydrin involved in chilling tolerance during seedling emergence of cowpea. Jouve, L. Early biochemical changes during acclimation of poplar to low temperature. Kalberer, S. Deacclimation and reacclimation of cold-hardy plants: current understanding and emerging concepts. Plant Sci. Kaplan, F. Exploring the temperature-stress metabolome of Arabidopsis.
Kim, Y. Seasonal free amino-acid fluctuations in red pine and white spruce needles. Kjellsen, T. Proteomics of extreme freezing tolerance in Siberian spruce Picea obovata. Proteomics 73, — Dehydrin accumulation and extreme low-temperature tolerance in Siberian spruce Picea obovata. Koag, M. Gain of structure and lipid specificity. Rockville , — The K-segment of maize DHN1 mediates binding to anionic phospholipid vesicles and concomitant structural changes. Kontunen-Soppela, S. Seasonal fluctuation of dehydrins is related to osmotic status in Scots pine needles.
Trees Struct. Kosova, K. Plant proteome changes under abiotic stress—contribution of proteomics studies to understanding plant stress response. Proteomics 74, — Koster, K. Glass formation and desiccation tolerance in seeds. Effects of vitrified and nonvitrified sugars on phosphatidylcholine fluid-to-gel phase transitions. Kramer, K. The importance of phenology for the evaluation of impact of climate change on growth of boreal, temperate and Mediterranean forests ecosystems: an overview. Krasensky, J.
Drought, salt, and temperature stress-induced metabolic rearrangements and regulatory networks. Kreyling, J. Cold tolerance of tree species is related to the climate of their native ranges. Langis, R. Cryopreservation of rye protoplasts by vitrification.
Larcher, W. Berlin: Springer Verlag. Lee, C. Photoperiodic regulation of the C-repeat binding factor CBF cold acclimation pathway and freezing tolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana. Levine, H. Schwartzberg and R. Levitt, J. New York: Academic Press. Li, C. Environmental regulation and physiological basis of freezing tolerance in woody plants.
Acta Physiol. Liu, J. Characterization of Picg5 novel proteins associated with seasonal cold acclimation of white spruce Picea glauca. Martin, B. Seasonal and experimentally induced changes in the ultrastructure of chloroplasts of pinus-silvestris. Martz, F. Menon, M. Population genetics of freeze tolerance among natural populations of Populus balsamifera across the growing season.
Odlum, K. Influence of photoperiod and temperature on frost hardiness and free amino acid concentrations in black spruce seedlings. Tree physiol. Effects of climatic warming on cold hardiness of some northern woody plants assessed from simulation experiments. Palta, J. Alterations in membrane transport properties by freezing injury in herbaceous plants. Evidence against rupture theory. Parker, J. Seasonal changes in white pine leaves: a comparison of cold resistance and free-sugar fluctuations.
Pomeroy, M. Seasonal cytological changes in secondary phloem parenchyma cells in robinia-pseudoacacia in relation to cold hardiness.
Renaut, J. Quantitative proteomic analysis of short photoperiod and low-temperature responses in bark tissues of peach Prunus persica L. Tree Genet. Genomes 4, — Responses of poplar to chilling temperatures: proteomic and physiological aspects. Plant Biol. Repo, T. Colombo Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic , — Rinne, P. Dehydrins in cold-acclimated apices of birch Betula pubescens ehrh. Planta , — Onset of freezing tolerance in birch Betula pubescens Ehrh.
The shoot apical meristem restores its symplasmic organization during chilling-induced release from dormancy. It refers to fact that the apical bud, or the bud at the apex or tip of the stem, inhibits the growth of other buds that are lower on the stem. Essentially, the bud that is highest on the stem will grow, while the growth of lower buds is limited to focus the plants energy on the growing tips. Apical dominance is controlled by the release of a plant hormone called auxin from the bud that is highest on the stem.
As this hormone travels back down the stem and other, lower buds are exposed to auxin, their growth is inhibited. In this manner, woody plants can grow taller, rather than bushier, and capture more sunlight than shorter, adjacent plants. Essentially, trees are programmed to grow tall by the pattern to which their buds are exposed to auxin. Since woody plants invest so much energy in their growing tips, when the apical bud is removed, either from a pruning cut, a browsing deer, storm damage, or other impacts, it becomes a race to reestablish the dominant bud.
In absence of auxin, which would typically be released by the apical bud, the growth of lower buds begins, which takes significant energy. Until a new bud becomes dominant, or higher on the plant, a lot of energy is invested in a flush of growth to reestablish an apically dominant bud.
For this reason, it can be incredibly important to establish one dominant stem, called the central leader, in young trees. If a young tree has two competing stems at the top that are nearly the same height, significant energy is expended as they compete to grow the tallest. In cases where the apical bud or buds in a woody plant are indiscriminately removed, such as with deer browse, it can cause serious problems for the plant as it scrambles to reallocate energy and growth.
In nature, it is a huge advantage to grow above the height of browsing animals. Another transports liquids from the leaves to the roots and also laterally above ground. This is called the Phloem. As the plant grows it constantly renews both of these. Only the new xylem and phloem transport water and nutrients. The old xylem tissue becomes the wood and the old phloem tissue becomes the bark. Since this tissue creation is very slow in winter, the creation of new wood slows down, resulting in an annual growth ring blue arrow that can be seen in this cross-section of a Black Locust tree branch.
Other perennials, such as grasses, persist from year-to-year only in their root and root crown. They do not re-use in the following year the structures they build above ground during the growing season. They succeed through prolific seed-production, a greater tolerance for dry conditions and the ability to recover rapidly from a catastrophic environmental disturbance such as a fire or a flood.
The seeds of cottonwood trees have a cottony structure which enables them to blow long distances in the air before settling on the ground. This cotton-like fiber tends to collect everywhere when the seeds fall - massed in billowy piles on roadsides, insinuated in other plant-life and flower petals, and tickling noses.
Eastern Red Cedar - Juniperus virginiana. Sassafras - Sassafras albidum Spicebush - Lindera benzoi n. Snailseed - Cocculus carolinus Moonseed - Menispermum canadense. Sycamore - Platanus occidentalis. Wahoo - Euonymus atropurpureus Bittersweet - Celastrus scandens.
0コメント