Only 12 4. In the control group, 51 Human immunodeficiency virus HIV infections are not prevalent in southeastern Iran and tests for HIV detection were not requested for all patients. Therefore, only three out of 38 TB patients and one out of 24 controls, with a high risk behavior, were reported positive for HIV infection. In multivariate logistic regression Table 2 , cigarette smokers were 3. As mentioned previously, smoking is a well-recognized major risk factor for the development of lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and other respiratory infections, especially TB While the rates of smoking have declined in developed countries during the past few decades, they have continued to rise in less developed countries.
As demonstrated in our study, cigarette smoking was three times more frequent in TB patients, compared to healthy individuals. Common risk factors related to smoking, such as smoking for more than 10 years, familial TB history, familial smoking history, and the use of non-parenteral drugs, were more frequent in TB patients, compared with controls.
Smoking has been associated with TB and mortality from TB in several studies 2 , 6 , 7 , A year prospective cohort study — carried out in South Korea from to revealed evidences that smoking increases the incidence of TB, the mortality rates from this disease, and TB recurrence 7.
The adjusted risk of TB deaths among bidi smokers was 2. In another study carried out in southern India, smoking, which increases the incidence of clinical TB, was the cause of half of the male TB deaths, and of a quarter of all male deaths in middle age 6.
Similarly to our study, other researches carried out in the United Kingdom, Taiwan and China, revealed the strong association between TB and smoking, and the reduction of TB risks by smoking cessation 9 , 12 , 14 - Smoking has been shown to significantly associate with a delay in sputum smear conversion time. In addition, exposure to second-hand smoke can also increase the risk for both TB infection and development of active TB disease, among children and adults.
Therefore, TB patients who smoke at home are also placing their families at a greater risk of TB infection. Similar to other researches, the association between TB and smoking was demonstrated in our study.
We want to express our thanks to the Deputy of Research of the Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, for financial support. We also wish to bring our appreciation to Mrs. Mirfakhrai and Mrs. Pour-Afghan for technical support. The aim of this study is to determine the association between TB and cigarette smoking in an endemic area for tuberculosis.
In general, the findings of this research are indicative of strong association between TB and smoking. These results prompt for including interventions for smoking cessation in the current tuberculosis control practice. Please cite this paper as:. Association Between Tuberculosis and Smoking. DOI: R Alavi-Naini carried out the design, coordinated the study and prepared the manuscript.
B Sharifi-Mood provided assistance in the design of the study and statistical analysis. Maliheh Metanat edited the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the content of the manuscript. Financial Disclosure:. This study was a part of a research project that was financially supported by the Research Council of Zahedan University. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Published online Jul Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract Background The association between smoking and tuberculosis TB , which has been proven in multiple studies with different study population ethnicity, has not yet received sufficient attention in terms of TB control.
Links between smoking and TB have long been suspected, but new studies, coupled with reviews of older research, have provided definitive evidence of the connection. In addition to influencing the risk of contracting TB, developing the active form of the disease and ultimately dying from it, smoking is known to negatively influence the response to treatment and to increase the risk of relapse.
Furthermore, recent studies have shown that second-hand smoke increases the risk of contracting the disease, especially in children. Ukraine first acknowledged that it was facing a TB epidemic in More than 20 years later, TB continues to present a major public health challenge. Ukraine has the fifth-highest prevalence of multidrug-resistant TB MDR-TB in the world, and the country reports relatively high mortality from untreated or inappropriately treated TB.
Ukraine has been updating its national policies and guidelines in line with the latest WHO recommendations and applying them in daily practice. The country is also moving towards people-centred care, with a correct balance between hospitalization and ambulatory care, by bringing the diagnostics and treatment to the primary health-care level — as close as possible to patients and communities.
The results of the Global Adult Tobacco Survey GATS , released in , show a significant decrease in smoking prevalence in the country over the last 7 years. Course of pulmonary tuberculosis in diabetics [Article in French] Rev Pneumol.
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